Written by: Jack Houchin, PNLD Legal Adviser
Not reviewed after the date of publication - 25 July 2025
Unlike creating 2D images on paper through ink deposition with a traditional desktop printer, additive manufacturing (3D printing) could be said to be the next stage in printer development, allowing the creation of physical objects with the same technique as laser printers. Criminals are exploiting this advancement in technology to create firearms and imitation firearms, which are otherwise heavily regulated.
In this article, PNLD Legal Adviser Jack Houchin, highlights the current law and the statutory measures being proposed to tackle the growing problems relating to 3D printing firearms.
The Current Law
Section 57(1) of the Firearms Act 1968 (FA) defines the expression firearm as meaning:
(a) a lethal barrelled weapon (see subsection (1B));
(b) a prohibited weapon;
(c) a relevant component part in relation to a lethal barrelled weapon or a prohibited weapon (see subsection (1D));
(d) an accessory to a lethal barrelled weapon or a prohibited weapon where the accessory is designed or adapted to diminish the noise or flash caused by firing the weapon.
The FA contains offences relating to the prohibition of firearms:
- Section 1 of the FA creates an offence for anyone to possess, purchase or acquire a firearm or ammunition to which the section applies without holding a firearm certificate. Section 1 applies to every firearm apart from certain shotguns or air-weapons. Details of the weapons this does not apply to are detailed in section 1(3) of the Act.
- Section 3 of the FA creates an offence for a person who is not a registered firearms dealer or their servant, to manufacture or possess for sale, by way of trade or business, a component part of a firearm.
- Section 5 of the FA contains the general prohibition on firearms and makes it an offence for anyone without authority to possess, purchase, acquire, manufacture, sell, transfer, possess for sale or transfer, a component part of any of the types of firearms listed in section 5(1) or 5(1A).
3D printed firearms, ammunition or component parts are captured by the definition in section 57(1) of the FA and therefore, the possession, manufacture, purchase and sale of 3D printed firearms, ammunition or component parts could amount to an offence noted above.
Armament Research Services have produced a timeline poster with illustrations of 3D printed firearms to aid identification and demonstrate their development.
Firearms, ammunition or component parts may involve some element of 3D printing or may be fully 3D printed. As an example, the image below shows a stripped-down FGC-9 that incorporates a homemade barrel made from commercially available pre-hardened 16 mm O.D. hydraulic tubing (ARES, 2023, Page 53).
Imitation Firearm
Section 57(4) of the FA defines an imitation firearm as: 'any thing which has the appearance of being a firearm (other than such a weapon as is mentioned in section 5(1)(b) of this Act) whether or not it is capable of discharging any shot, bullet or other missile.' (See document D48 on PNLD for additional notes).
Therefore, a 3D printer could be used to make an imitation firearm with the related offences for consideration being:
- Section 16A of the FA - possessing a firearm or imitation firearm with intent to cause others to fear unlawful violence being used against them.
- Section 17 of the FA - using a firearm to resist arrest and being in possession of a firearm or imitation firearm at the time of arrest for certain offences.
- Section 18 - carry a firearm or imitation firearm with criminal intent.
- Section 19 - possessing an imitation firearm in a public place without lawful authority or, reasonable excuse.
- Section 20 - trespassing of a building or part of it while having a firearm or imitation firearm an offence.
Section 1 of the Firearms Act 1982 specifies that the provisions of the Firearms Act 1968 shall be applicable in relation to imitation firearms that are readily convertible into a firearm. This provision is relevant to 3D printed firearms that may be designed to be readily convertible or used as component parts.
Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 (VCRA)
Section 36 of the VCRA creates the criminal offences of:
- Manufacturing a realistic imitation firearm (sections 36(1)(a) and (9)(a));
- Modifying an imitation firearm so that it becomes a realistic imitation firearm (sections 36(1)(b) and (9)(a));
- Selling a realistic imitation firearm (36(1)(c) and (9)(a)); or
- Bringing a realistic imitation firearm into Great Britain or causing one to be brought into Great Britain (36(1)(d) and (9)(a)).
Therefore, a 3D printer could be used in the commission of the above offences.
Search and Seizure Powers
Our In the Spotlight feature on Search, Entry and Seizure - PACE addresses the general powers of entry, search and seizure. Additionally, section 46 of the FA provides for the power to search with a warrant in relation to any offence under the FA where the requirements of the legislation are satisfied, except in relation to an offence under section 22(3) (an unsupervised person aged under 15 years in possession of an assembled shot gun) or an offence relating specifically to air weapons.
Officers should be aware of the equipment, methods and materials used in creating 3D printed firearms, ammunition and component parts as this will assist in the identification of any potential offences when conducting a search - the image below shows an example of a simple DIY ECM barrel-making set-up.
Case Law
Being a relatively new concept, case law specifically involving 3D printed firearms is quite scarce. However, the following cases demonstrate the approach the courts have taken towards 3D printed firearms.
- R v Iqbal [2022] EWCA Crim 1156 – Iqbal arranged for a 3D printed barrel of a Glock 17 firearm to be shipped into the UK from the USA. The court confirmed that the barrel was a “relevant component part” as defined under section 5(1)(aba) of the FA.
- David Biddell-Portman was convicted of manufacturing a firearm when he used a 3D printer to make assault rifles. Birmingham man used 3D printer to make assault rifles - BBC News
- Neo-Nazi Matthew Cronjager was jailed in October 2021 after being convicted of preparing for acts of terrorism and other offences. He wanted to produce an FGC-9 and another model of gun, using a 3D printer as part of his plan to shoot an Asian friend (see sentencing remarks). Neo-Nazi Matthew Cronjager jailed for plotting terrorist acts - BBC News
- Daniel Harris, whose far-right extremist videos influenced Payton Gendron - the gunman in a mass shooting at a supermarket in Buffalo, New York - was convicted of a terrorism offence, relating to a 3D printer he was using in an attempt to make firearm parts for one of the guns. Daniel Harris: UK teen sentenced over videos linked to US shootings - BBC News
- In January 2025, the first jihadist Abdiwahid Mohamed was convicted for terrorism offences for possessing 3D printed firearm blueprints.
Proposed Legislation
Concerningly, firearm models for a 3D printer, also known as blueprints or templates, are readily available and easily accessible in the public domain – the most prevalent domain being the internet. 3D printed firearms ‘communities’ believe paying for files conflicts with the purpose of 3D printed firearms meaning blueprints are often free to obtain. This increases the likelihood of 3D printed firearms offences becoming more prevalent. Additionally, the development of 3D-printed firearms is widely broadcasted across sites like:
- (X formerly Twitter)
In England and Wales, it is not an offence to create, possess or distribute a model/temple/blueprint that relates to 3D printed firearms, however, that could soon change.
At the time of writing this article, the ‘Firearms (3D Printing) Bill’ has been generated which is:
“A Bill to create an offence of possessing a blueprint for the production of a firearm by 3D printing; to create an offence of possessing part of a firearm produced by 3D printing; and for connected purposes.”
This was introduced to the House of Commons on 29th October 2024 as a Private Member’s Bill and the next stage for this Bill is a second reading in the House of Commons, which is scheduled to take place on 12th September 2025.
Furthermore, the Border Security, Asylum and Immigration Bill has been generated which is:
“A Bill to make provision about border security; to make provision about immigration and asylum; to make provision about sharing customs data and trailer registration data; to make provision about articles for use in serious crime; to make provision about serious crime prevention orders; to make provision about fees paid in connection with the recognition, comparability or assessment of qualifications; and for connected purposes.”
This Bill has reached the committee stage in the House of Lords and if the Bill is successful, it would create a new offence to possess, make or supply certain listed items for use in a serious criminal offence. Listed items include a template to make 3D printed firearm components (see explanatory notes).
Academic Opinion
Dr Rajan Basra, a Senior Research Fellow at the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and postdoctoral researcher in the Department of War Studies at King’s College London, is a leading academic in this area. The PNLD posed the following question to Dr Basra:
“In the UK, in terms of policing, if you could offer one piece of advice as to the most effective way to combat the creation, development and distribution of 3D-printed firearms, what would this be? For example, would this be intelligence led policing with a focus on individuals downloading manuals and software etc?”
Dr Basra stated:
“I don’t think the most effective response to this at the moment is going to be led by policing. I think it will be led by tech companies and greater enforcement of what tech companies are obliged to do you can just Google them (digital blueprints) and find them within minutes which, it’s the easiest part of the entire process. When it comes to policing, I know there are a few initiatives that exist in the UK. There’s ‘Project Interknow’ led by Counter Terrorism police and the National Crime Agency but, I think it would be good to train front line staff who are doing house searches as they may not be aware of a lot of the paraphernalia when it comes to 3D-printing. They could easily dismiss things because they look a bit brightly coloured or, they look unusual. But when it comes to combatting the creation and development of the actual blueprint, I think that’s beyond what the police can do in the UK to be frank because, this movement is global there’s very little that can be done to stop the flow of new digital blueprints. What can be done is build up relationships with relevant companies and the tech sector, commercial retail spaces, so that you can perhaps have the right trip wires in place if someone does something that indicates they are looking to make a 3D printed gun”.
